The samurai, or bushi, represent one of the most iconic symbols of Japanese culture. Yet, often overlooked in popular accounts is the role of the onna-bugeisha (女武者), female warriors of noble birth trained in the ways of the samurai. These women fought alongside their male counterparts, not only defending their homes and families but also participating in battles.
Nakano Takeko Statue at Hōkai-ji, Aizubange, Fukushima, Japan
The origins of the onna-bugeisha, also known as onna-musha, date back to the XIIth century, during the Gempei War (1180-1185). It was a time of internal strife and near-constant warfare among clans. Though society was largely patriarchal, women of the samurai class were expected to learn the arts of war to protect their households.
The weapon of choice for the newly created onna-bugeisha was the naginata, a pole weapon with a curved blade. Some authors claim that the main advantage of the weapon was its length, which allowed women, who were generally smaller in stature than their male counterparts, to keep adversaries at a distance while compensating for physical disparities (Kanno, 2005, ISBN: 9784902075598). The truth is that naginatas were widely used in battlefields, almost as much as spears (yari), and were particularly more useful than swords while on horseback or while defending property.
In addition to martial training, onna-bugeisha were also educated in literature, philosophy, and etiquette, embodying the ideal of bunbu-ryodo (the way of both the pen and the sword). This combination of martial and cultural education enabled them to play influential roles in both war and peacetime. They were often entrusted with estate management and the rearing of their children, grooming future generations of samurai.
A naginata blade forged by Osafune Katsumitsu. Muromachi period, 1503, Tokyo National Museum
Among the most legendary onna-bugeisha is Tomoe Gozen, who lived in the late Heian period (794-1185). Tomoe was a concubine and warrior in the service of Minamoto no Yoshinaka during the Genpei War (1180–1185). Known for her skill with the bow and katana, Tomoe fought bravely in battles and became one of the most enduring female figures in samurai lore. Her strength, bravery, and martial prowess are immortalized in literary texts such as the Heike Monogatari, where she is described as a fearless warrior who “fought in heavy armor, wielding her blade and bow with unmatched expertise”.
The onna-musha Tomoe Gozen on horseback with a naginata
In the Edo period (1603-1868), women continued to train as warriors, though Japan was in an era of relative peace under the Tokugawa shogunate. During this time, samurai women’s roles shifted more towards maintaining the household and less towards battlefield engagements. Yet, martial skills remained a central part of samurai culture, ensuring that the legacy of onna-bugeisha continued. Many women also took part in rebellions, such as the Boshin War (1868-1869) during the Meiji Restoration, when they fought to defend the samurai tradition against modernizing forces.
Women fighting the Imperial army during the Subjugation of Kagoshima in Sasshu (Satsuma), by Yoshitoshi, 1877
The onna-bugeisha were not simply warriors; they were embodiments of bushido, the way of the warrior. Bushido emphasized loyalty, courage, and honor—a code that these women adhered to as strictly as their male counterparts. In many ways, the participation of onna-bugeisha highlighted the ideological flexibility of bushido, suggesting that loyalty and martial valor were valued over gender constraints. This warrior code allowed for an unusual space for women within the samurai class, even if broader Japanese society largely restricted women to more domestic roles.
With the end of the Edo period and the abolishment of the samurai class during the Meiji Restoration, the role of the onna-bugeisha largely disappeared. Japan's move towards a centralized, modern military left little place for the samurai class, and the onna-bugeisha’s martial traditions faded into history.
Through martial prowess, courage and adherence to bushido, the onna-bugeisha cemented a legacy of valor and resilience that continues to captivate audiences worldwide. The stories of women like Tomoe Gozen and countless unnamed female warriors serve as a reminder that the spirit of the samurai transcends gender, standing as a testament to the enduring power of honor and bravery in Japanese culture.
References:
Amino, Y. (2007). Rethinking Japanese History. University of California Press. ISBN: 9780520237362.
Bryant, A. (2004). The Samurai and the Sacred. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780195174801.
Kanno, K. (2005). Women and Warriors in Early Japan. Kegan Paul International. ISBN: 9784902075598.